![]() ![]() ![]() Inferior to the glabella lie the nasal notch and spine, which articulate with the nasal bones and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid. Laterally, the supraorbital margins form the orbital rim and contain the supraorbital notch which transmits the supraorbital vessels and nerves. 21,22 Beneath these are two superciliary arches joined in the middle by the glabella. On either side of the midline are two rounded elevations, called the frontal eminences. The squamous portion is the largest and smoothest. 21,22 The frontal bone is made up of three parts: the squamous, orbital and nasal parts. The frontal bone articulates with the right and left parietal bones, the zygomatic bones, the sphenoid bone, the ethmoid bones, lacrimal bones, maxillary bones, and the nasal bones. The frontal bone is a large, unpaired bone that starts out developmentally as two halves that fuse together, along the metopic suture. We believe these models and accompanying text will provide a useful reference for neurosurgical applications. The virtual human skull model has been divided into 6 different anatomical zones to facilitate illustration of the intricate anatomical relationships. Through detailed analysis of cadaveric osteologic specimens, software modelling of radiographic reconstructions, and critical examination by an anatomist, the authors have developed an anatomically accurate and comprehensive 3D digital model of the human cranium. 20 The literature is devoid of a repository of 3D virtual models for all cranial bones and important neurovascular structures, which is necessary to provide a comprehensive reference. in 2011 created a digital 3D cerebrovascular atlas through computer software referencing multiple 3T and 7T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans to create a continuous cerebrovascular tree that serves as an educational, research, and clinical reference. 15 Multiple prior attempts to create temporal bone virtualizations have been reported and are claimed to positively impact the understanding of the body’s most intricate bony anatomy. Kockro and Hwang in 2009 created an interactive 3D virtual model of the temporal bone and its intricate microsurgical anatomy to assist with understanding the anatomical relationships. 12-14Įducational digital models of segments of cranial contents have been created and demonstrated the potential of this technology as a reference. ![]() This concept was demonstrated for basic otolaryngologic surgical planning in the 1990’s 3,11 and has since expanded to include calvarial vault reconstruction during craniosynostosis surgery, the vertebral column during posterior screw fixation, and aneurysm configuration during microsurgery. Importantly, these digital models can produce patient-specific 3D print models that provide an opportunity to create physical models to emulate intricate surgical anatomy. 10 Advancement in the realism of this technology will also lead to more robust simulation models. 1,3 More recent developments in 3D computerized models have been used to assist with the visuo-spatial challenges of temporal lobectomy, 4 cerebral aneurysm clipping, 5,6 transpetrous surgical approach model, 7 temporal bone dissection, 8,9 and posterior fossa surgical planning. ![]() Cranial digital surgical simulation was first initiated in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. 1,2 This endeavour introduced 3D modelling as a novel means of referencing anatomical data.ĭigital modelling technology is particularly useful for the field of neurosurgery given the intricate 3D anatomy within the cranial contents and spine. The Visible Human Project was an endeavour by the National Library of Medicine to create a complete 3D representation of a male and female human body for the purpose of education. Therefore, there is a need for models that can assist with 3D mental reconstruction of neuroanatomical principles for understanding both normal and pathological cerebral structures.Ĭomputer graphics and 3D digital designs have an established presence in the neurosurgical literature, particularly within the past decade, to augment education. Based on these resources, surgeons have to reconstruct the anatomy in the three-dimensional (3D) space to appreciate the full anatomical relationships. Prior efforts to educate surgical trainees on the intricacies of neuroanatomy have involved meticulous dissection of cadaveric specimens and a review of two-dimensional (2D) representations of anatomical dissections and illustrations. Maintaining a working mental representation of this environment to augment one’s capabilities during operative intervention can be particularly cumbersome. An understanding of skull anatomy is important for neurosurgical efficienty. The advent of virtual reality and advances in computer graphics technology has enabled the development of simulated experiences and illustrative representations of intricate anatomical relationships. ![]()
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